According to the March of Dimes, at the age of 25, a healthy woman’s risk of having a baby with Down’s syndrome is one in 1250. By the time she is 40 this risk climbs to one in 100.

Though screening tests are available, many women choose not to take them since false positive results can be the outcome and secondly many women, even if they find that there is something, they may choose not to terminate the pregnancy.

Tests that are routinely offered to all pregnant women regardless of their age, are:

• Screening for Down’s Syndrome. This includes testing for other chromosomal abnormalities as well.  Here blood tests evaluate a mother’s risk of having a baby with birth defects of certain kinds. The risk of downs is also measured during ultrasound: it is detected because the skin at the back of the neck is thicker among downs babies.
• Amniocentesis or testing of the amniotic fluid is another test offered, however this is thought to carry slight risk of miscarriage.

Source: pennlive

The modern pregnancy test has made it a simple matter to confirm a pregnancy by the simple expedient of peeing on a stick.

The test device works by detecting the presence of HCG or human chorionic gonadotropin in the blood or urine of a pregnant woman. The lateral low technology is used for this and if the test is positive, the urine usually changes color and a colored line shows up in the testing strip area.

The home pregnancy testing kit is very reliable and one study showed that when used by experienced technicians, it had an accuracy level of over 97%, the same professional laboratory testing in terms of accuracy.

 In the hand of consumer, however, the accuracy of the test was shown to be about 75% only. This goes to show that they may be a high level of users who do not use the testing device properly or as instructed.

This gives rise to a false positive pregnancy test and equally as well work the other way around; by throwing up a false negative. Improper use and failure to follow instructions is a big reason why a false positive pregnancy test may show up.

Sometimes a particular constituent of one’s urine can give rise to an evaporation line which could be mistaken for a positive result in a test kit. In this case, testing should be done again in a few days to get the correct result.

In rare cases, the testing kit itself may have some anomaly or manufacturing defect or sometimes the expiry date may have passed. So be sure to check the date of manufacture on the package and also the date of expiration because an expired product may not give you correct results.

Certain medications may increase levels of the HCG hormone in the body and may therefore result in a false positive pregnancy test.

Understand that a false positive pregnancy may result from a number of different factors as stated above and also other possible reasons. So it is important to follow instructions fully and correctly.

Make sure that the brand you buy is good quality and well within the date of expiry. Also do not depend on the home test entirely, have the findings confirmed by a doctor’s test for an accurate result.

However, in some rare cases, a home pregnancy test will display a false positive and there could be several reasons for this:

• Not following directions properly can sometimes result in a false positive result.
• The home test kit is either contaminated or is faulty. On rare occasions there could be something wrong with the strip that you may be using and therefore may show a false positive
• Contamination or impurity of the urine sample. A home test kit usually requires a woman to use a urine sample for taking the test. If the sample is collected in a cup having traces of detergent or if there is some blood in the sample, this could result in a false positive.
• Certain prescription medications can interfere with an accurate result so that if one is on any kind of tranquilizers, diuretics, anticonvulsants etc, there are chances of the test showing a false positive
• Certain medical conditions can cause the test result to show a false positive, particularly if there is a disorder or tumor of some sort in the reproductive tract.

Less than half of pregnant women showing these signs actually go on to give birth soon after, and they have to often undergo unnecessary tests.

A test called fetal fibronectin (fFN) that could solve the problem, was found by the UK researchers, which looks for a protein.

fFN is the protein which helps in attaching the fetal sac, in which the fetus develops, to the uterus.

In the previous research, it was shown that when fFN is found to be leaking in the pregnancy, a premature delivery is more likely. The test is cheap and easy to perform, but not commonly used in all the maternity units.

Source: BBC

Until now that is; with paternity testing becoming ever more common and with almost 100 percent accuracy, it is possible to state without doubt who the father of a baby is, and put an end to the speculation if any.

Paternity testing is now available in a home kit option which is not just a convenience, it can bring about life altering results and it also raises serious issues of informed consent and privacy.

With the exception of some rare genetic[genetic testing] conditions such as Mosaicism and Chimerism, which can actually show false negative results in DNA based paternity tests, these tests are completely reliable and are even admissible in court as evidence.

What are the advantages of paternity testing home kits that you see advertised so often and which now grace the shelves of your neighborhood drug store? Well those are several:

• The convenience of carrying out the swabs at home by yourself rather than having to set aside several hours for an appointment at testing clinic.
• It’s private and affords you the kind of anonymity that regular testing centers may not be able to guarantee.
• It is affordable and you have the answers that you seek within 3 working days.
• So you can have the peace of mind or satisfy your curiosity as the case may be, with the convenient home option paternity kit.

This site offers you the home testing option for $89 and claims to offer 100% accurate results by virtue of their dual testing procedure. They claim to the lab that conducts more paternity tests than any other in the United States and therefore claims to offer an affordable rate.

The DNA sample collection kit offered contains “cotton-like swabs and envelopes” that can be used to mail samples back to the testing facility.

And how do you get the DNA sample of the person? By the simple expedient of rubbing the swab against the inside of the person’s cheek!

While home paternity kits are undoubtedly convenient and effective, one needs to pause for a moment and consider the probable far reaching consequences that a test such as this may have on the future. Unlike other tests, this one has the potential to be a life changing one!

These prenatal tests can detect birth defects such as neural tube defects, Down syndrome, chromosome abnormalities, genetic diseases and other conditions, such as spina bifida, cleft palate, Tay Sachs disease, sickle cell anemia, Thalassemia, cystic fibrosis, and fragile x syndrome.

Some tests and checks during gestation are routine, such as Ultrasounds.

However more invasive methods such as amniocentesis for detecting birth defects are done only when indicated.

In the usual course, only non invasive techniques and tests are considered; such as the examination of the woman’s uterus from outside the body, obstetric ultrasounds from 7 weeks to confirm pregnancy dates, the specialized nuchal scan at 11-13 weeks may be used to identify higher risks of Down’s syndrome.

Later morphology scans from 18 weeks may check for any abnormal development. External fetal monitoring may be done when indicated. The obstetrician will also routinely check the fetal heartbeat; check the pregnant woman’s blood pressure, weight and other physical characteristics.

More invasive methods of detecting fetal abnormalities may be considered:

• If a woman has become pregnant for the first time when over the age of 35
• If a woman has previously had one or more miscarriages, premature babies or babies with a birth defect, especially heart or genetic problems
• If a woman has previously had a still birth or the child has died soon after birth
• If a woman has high blood pressure, lupus, diabetes, asthma, or epilepsy
• If the pregnant woman has a family history or ethnic background prone to genetic disorders, or whose partners have these
• Women who are pregnant with multiples (twins or more)

In the event that the above factors raise the possibility of complications and birth defects, then invasive methods of testing are considered, such as Chorionic villus sampling, Amniocentesis Embroscopy and fetoscopy. These methods are however associated with the chance of a miscarriage (with Chorionic villus sampling there is chance about 1% and with Amniocentesis it is about .5%). So the probable risks have to be considered prior to getting any invasive tests done.

Even after the tests are conducted and results indicate some or other abnormality, women have to consider whether they are emotionally and physically prepared to abort the fetus, because it is the very few cases wherein any kind of corrective measures can be carried out on the fetus.

Today you can go into any drug store, mega mart, or even some convenience stores, and buy a pregnancy test that is as reliable as the ones they use in medical offices.

You can even do an internet search to find out which tests are most accurate, and which can detect pregnancy the earliest. But have you ever wondered exactly how pregnancy tests, especially the newer digital pregnancy tests work?

When a woman is pregnant, she produces a special chemical known as human chorionic gonadotropin, or HCG. A urine pregnancy test consists of a strip of absorbent material surrounded by a plastic case. This absorbent strip is impregnated with chemicals which react to other chemicals.

There are usually two different chemicals in the strip. The first one reacts to the presence of urine. This is usually the control line which lets you know that the test was working properly. The second chemical in the strip reacts to HCG.

When HCG is present in the urine, it reacts with the chemical in the absorbent strip to produce a positive result. A digital pregnancy test actually contains a small battery which powers the digital display.

It is only the display that is different with a digital pregnancy test; the underlying chemical reactions are the same. Knowing this, it may not make sense to spend extra money for a digital readout.

The amounts of HCG that a pregnancy test can detect vary from test to test. HCG levels increase in your blood and urine on a daily basis once your pregnancy has begun.

Usually it takes at least 10 to 14 days for enough HCG to be present in your urine to be detected by a urine pregnancy test.

Blood tests are more sensitive, but they are also more expensive and can be uncomfortable. Blood tests for pregnancy are usually ordered to monitor HCG levels rather than merely to detect their presence.

It is possible to get a “false negative” on a urine pregnancy test. A false negative means that you get a negative response but you are actually pregnant. This usually occurs early in your pregnancy which HCG levels have not risen to a detectable amount.

It is also possible, though less common, to get a “false positive” on a urine pregnancy test. A false positive means that you get a positive response when you are not, in fact, pregnant.

This usually occurs in response to medications you may be taking, such as fertility treatments. Generally, however, if a pregnancy test says you are pregnant, you can rely on the results.

One prenatal test that can provide information about your baby’s health is an amniocentesis.

It is most often performed when you are about 12 to 16 weeks pregnant, though it can also be performed closer to delivery to see if your baby’s lungs are fully developed.

In an amniocentesis, your doctor uses an ultrasound probe to determine the position of your baby and placenta, and to locate a pocket of amniotic fluid.

Then a long needle is inserted through your abdomen into that pocket of fluid and about two tablespoons full are withdrawn.

Your body is constantly replacing and renewing amniotic fluid, and will make up for this withdrawal in only a short period of time. The fluid is then delivered to a laboratory for study and analysis.

What can an amniocentesis tell you? The most important reason an amniocentesis is performed is when certain genetic problems, including Tay-sachs Disease and Hunter’s Syndrome are suspected. The test can also reveal information about spinal defects, chromosomal abnormalities (such as Down’s Syndrome), as well as the baby’s gender.

The risks with amniocentesis include bleeding, infection, premature rupture of your amniotic sac, and miscarriage. Your baby, placenta and the baby’s umbilical cord can also be injured with the needle, although this is not very common with an experienced doctor.

Amniocentesis is most commonly offered to mothers who are 35 or older, who have a history of genetic disease in their family, who have previously given birth to a child with a genetic disease, or who have had inconclusive results on previous screening tests.

To determine whether or not you should have an amniocentesis, weigh the information the test will provide you together with what you will do based on that information against any possible risks. Only you can make the decision right for you and your baby.

This is not something that any women wants to go through but now it is happening to you. Miscarriages can happen in a few minutes and physicians do not always know what causes them.

You will need to go to the doctor immediately when you start to miscarry. If your physician thinks that it is necessary, they will want to perform a D&C on your uterus.

D&C Surgery

D&C (dilation and curettage) is a surgical procedure that allows your physician to clean out your uterus. They will do this by dilating your cervix and scraping the lining of your uterus.

Having a D&C performed will be necessary if you have very heavy bleeding with your miscarriage. Another reason that your physician may consider a D&C is if your miscarriage does not complete itself naturally.

Your physician will perform a D&C at your request if you do not want to wait for the miscarriage to complete on its own.

D&C versus Expectant Management

A D&C will help to end the miscarriage quickly. You will not have to go through as much physical discomfort, as you would have originally had to with an expectant management miscarriage.

Expectant management of a miscarriage may take a long time. Expectant management happens when your physician tells you that you have an ectopic pregnancy or a hemorrhage.

After your miscarriage, your physician will be able to run some tests and see what caused this horrible thing to occur.

D&C Risks

There will be several risk factors to consider when getting a D&C. Puncturing of the uterine walls does sometimes occur during surgery.

When this happens, your uterus walls have the chance of weakening and your uterus has the chance of scarring. This scarring of the uterus, depending upon how severe, could affect future pregnancies. One risk that can happen, as with any surgery, is a bad reaction to anesthesia.

After the Surgery

You can usually go back to work after a few days when you have had a D&C. Bleeding vaginally and slight cramping may occur after surgery but will subside in a couple of days.

Your physician can give you a prescription if you have any pain or discomfort. Monthly periods should return to normal in about eight weeks but you should not consider getting pregnant for at least a few months.

Your body will need time to get back to its normal self. If at any time after the D&C you start having bad pain, a vaginal discharge that is not normal, dizziness, or a fever you will need to contact your physician.

A miscarriage will be a very emotional time for you. Make sure to give yourself enough time to heal mentally. You may want to get some counseling or if you develop severe depression, your physician will help you with medications that will help you feel better.

Consequently, hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism can result in a miscarriage or brain damage to the fetus growing in the womb.

Up to five women in every thousand will suffer with a thyroid condition but usually goes undiagnosed. A decade ago, Dr. James E. Haddow, lead a study in Maine that examined over twenty five thousand women that were pregnant.

The children of the 62 found to have hypothyroidism were all found to have lower intelligence; they were all aged approximately eight years old.

Currently only women at high risk are tested and this is likely to remain the case. However, certain endocrinologists routinely test pregnant women as a matter of course. The medical world is fairly split over the matter so more research will need to be done in this area.

It appears that therapy involving T4 replacement is very successful, this was highlighted by researchers in Italy. The latter resulted in data noting sharp declines in miscarriage and other factors after at risk women were given a simple thyroid hormone tablet.

The thyroid gland is very important, situated in the neck region; it controls the bodies’ metabolism by regulating the heart rate, weight and various other areas, vital in staying healthy. The American Thyroid Society believes that eventually universal routine testing will be carried out on pregnant women.